about typewriter

The idea behind the typewriter was to apply the concept of movable type developed by Johann Gutenberg in the invention of the printing press century to a machine for individual use. Descriptions of such mechanical writing machines date to the early eighteenth century. In 1714, a patent something like a typewriter was granted to a man named Henry Mill in England, but no example of Mills’ invention survives. In 1829, William Burt (1792-1858) from Detroit, Michigan patented his typographer which had characters arranged on a rotating frame. However, Burt’s machine, and many of those that followed it, were cumbersome, hard to use, unreliable and often took longer to produce a letter than writing it by hand. Finally, in 1867, a Milwaukee, Wisconsin printer named Christopher Latham Sholes patented what was to be the first useful typewriter. He licensed his patent to Remington & Sons of Ilion, New York, a noted American gun maker. In 1874, the Remington Model 1, the first commercial typewriter, was placed on the market. Remington remained a leading manufacturer of typewriters until well into the twentieth century. Based on Sholes’ mechanical typewriter, the first electric typewriter was built by Thomas Alva Edison in the United States in 1872, but the widespread use of electric typewriters was not common until the 1950s. The electronic typewriters, a typewriter with an electronic "memory" capable of storing text, first appeared in 1978. It was developed independently by the Olivetti Company in Italy and the Casio Company in Japan.

It is help

Support for Libraries

Google's mission is to organize the world's information and make it universally accessible and useful. Facilitating library access to scholarly texts brings us one step closer to this goal. We're thankful to the libraries and librarians who make it possible.

We provide two solutions that make it easier for your patrons to access the electronic and print resources in your library when they are using Google Scholar.

Library Links Program		Support for Library Search
For libraries that make their resources available via a link resolver, we are now offering the option to include a link for their patrons to these resources as a part of the Google Scholar search results. How does it work? On-campus users at participating schools will see additional links in Google Scholar search results which facilitate access to their library's resources. These links lead to the library's servers which, in turn, direct them to the full-text of the article.		For libraries that have their holdings listed in OCLC's Open WorldCat, we have a link for each Google Scholar book result that leads to the Open WorldCat database where users can find the book in a local library. How does it work? All users of Google Scholar will see a 'Library Search' link for book results. Clicking on this link will direct them to the WorldCat system which will allow them to find a list of nearby libraries that have the desired book.

Library Links Policies

Google's use of electronic holdings information: We will use electronic holdings information for generating per article links in our search results to library servers. We will not share this information with third parties.

Library holdings usage information: We will not share information with third parties on the usage of your electronic holdings or on aggregate usage based on institutional characteristics or profiles.

Libraries can withdraw electronic holdings information: Libraries can ask us to stop using previously available electronic holdings information either automatically by removing the holdings information, or manually by sending us a request. Once the information is no longer available to us, we will stop using it within 30 days.

Frequently Asked Questions

Getting Started

1. I'm a librarian. How do I sign up for the Library Links program?
2. How do I get included in Library Search?
3. How much do you charge for Library Links and Library Search?
4. I have a home grown link resolver. Can I still sign up for the Library Links program?
5. Can you show my link resolver button instead of the text link?
6. How does a user who is off campus know about my libraries holdings with Google Scholar?
7. How do you handle user authentication?
8. Can I limit access to my holdings and registration data?
9. Is electronic holdings information necessary for participating in the Library Links program?

Technical Questions

1. What happens once I configure my link resolver to join Google Scholar?
2. Why do you need the IP address range for our patrons?
3. How do I make access simpler for off campus students and faculty who don't use our school's networks?
4. Why do you need to know our electronic holdings?
5. Do you rank our electronic holdings higher than our print holdings?
6. Do you need to know who I'm licensing my holdings from?
7. Do you share our holdings or registration data with anyone else?
8. If you have our holdings, why do we need a link resolver?

Getting Started

1. I'm a librarian. How do I sign up for the Library Links program?
   
   We are working with link resolver vendors to make it easy for libraries to participate in this program. For many, it could be as simple as a configuration option in their link resolver. Check with the vendor of your link resolver for more information.
   
2. How do I get included in Library Search?
   
   To have your library included as a part of the 'Library Search' link, you will need to join the OCLC Open Worldcat program. You can also work with your national library organization or union catalog to provide a library search service similar to Open WorldCat and then email us.
   
3. How much do you charge for Library Links and Library Search?
   
   We charge the best price possible: they are both free services.
   
4. I have a home grown link resolver. Can I still sign up for the Library Links program?
   
   Yes, but it will take some work. First, edit this file and put it up on your library website. Next, make your resolver export your electronic holdings in this format. Finally, email us the URLs for these files. We'll review your configuration and get back to you as soon as we can. Keep in mind this is a new program and it may take several weeks for us to review.
   
5. Can you show my link resolver button instead of the text link?
   
   Sorry, we are unable to use buttons or other images. Google Scholar's user interface is text-oriented. Text loads faster and is easier on people's eyes.
   
6. How does a user who is off campus know about my libraries holdings with Google Scholar?
   
   These users will need to configure their affiliation in their own preferences and then it's up to you to authenticate them.
   
7. How do you handle user authentication?
   
   We don't. People who don't come from your networks can select your library in their preferences. It's up to you to authenticate your patrons. You can choose the authentication mechanism that works best for you.
   
8. Can I limit access to my holdings and registration data?
   
   Yes, you can. Please use IP address based authentication. Your resolver vendor may have already done that for you.
   
9. Is electronic holdings information necessary for participating in the Library Links program?
   
   Yes. We have found that users are far more likely to take advantage of links that lead them to full text versions of the content.

Technical Questions

1. What happens once I configure my link resolver to join Google Scholar?
   
   Configuring your link resolver allows us to access information that tells us how to link to you, who should see your links and what your electronic holdings are. For more details on how this information is provided to us, please refer to question 4 in the previous section. We will refresh this information periodically to keep our system updated.
   
2. Why do you need the IP address range for our patrons?
   
   We need IP address ranges so that your links will automatically appear for people accessing Google Scholar from these networks. Other patrons -- for instance, off campus students -- will need to configure their affiliation in their own preferences .
   
   We strongly encourage you to provide your patrons' IP address ranges. Many good services go unused simply because people don't configure their preferences to utilize them.
   
3. How do I make access simpler for off campus students and faculty who don't use our school's networks?
   
   There's no simple answer but here are a few suggestions:
• Make sure your library proxy works for scholar.google.com and your proxy address is within the specified IP range. Then users who are using your proxy will automatically see the links to your electronic holdings in the Google Scholar search results.
• Use your resolver's option to route unauthenticated users through your library proxy (if your resolver provides this option).
• Show authentication instructions to people who use your link resolver from off campus.

4. Why do you need to know our electronic holdings?
   
   Users are more likely to click on your links if they expect that they will get the full text version of the work. We need your electronic holdings so that we can highlight links to full text. In addition, you have the option of using a different label for full text and print holdings. The text of label is up to you, though we recommend choosing a descriptive label like "BBC Full Text" or "BBC eText" for the electronic full text version and a less specific label like "BBC Links" for your other offline holdings.
   
5. Do you rank our electronic holdings higher than our print holdings?
   
   No, we don't. Google Scholar search results are ranked according to relevance.
   
6. Do you need to know who I'm licensing my holdings from?
   
   No, we only need to know the journal titles and the subscription dates. Please see this XML file for details.
   
7. Do you share our holdings or registration data with anyone else?
   
   Absolutely not.
   
8. If you have our holdings, why do we need a link resolver?
   
   Google Scholar knows which journals you have, but we don't know who serves them to you or how to direct users to them. Your link resolver takes the journal information and returns the correct URL to allow your users to access the article.
   
9. How do I make sure users have the best experience with my link resolver?
   
   Please follow general user interface wisdom:
• Avoid popup ads, blinking images, window resizing, time bombs, sound, etc.
• Check for broken links, server errors, pages that crash browsers, etc.
• Link directly to the catalog entry, not to an empty search box
• Tell users how to authenticate, not that they don't have access

These are some of the usability issues that we've seen with some link resolvers. We urge you to take a close look.